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CompTIA A+ Exam Prep: Core 1 & Core 2 Study Guide
CompTIA A+ Exam Prep: Core 1 & Core 2 Study Guide — a free intermediate-level guide covering how to pass the comptia a+ certification exam. Learn with...
What you will learn
- PC Hardware and Internal Components
- Peripherals, Connectors, and Mobile Devices
- Networking Fundamentals and Protocols
- Cloud Computing and Virtualization
- Hardware and Network Troubleshooting
- Windows Operating System Administration
- macOS, Linux, and Mobile OS Management
- Cybersecurity Fundamentals
- Software Troubleshooting and Security Operations
- Operational Procedures and Professionalism
1. PC Hardware and Internal Components
A small architecture firm hires you to build three workstations: one for heavy 3D rendering, one for basic CAD drafting, and one to serve as a network-attached storage (NAS) device for their project files. They hand you a budget and expect three very different machines. You cannot just buy the "best" components for each—what makes the rendering workstation fly will make the NAS unnecessarily expensive and inefficient. To pass the CompTIA A+ exam and succeed as a technician, you must know exactly how to match internal components to specific use cases. This requires a deep understanding of how motherboards, processors, memory, storage, expansion cards, and power supplies interact under the hood of a PC. Motherboards and CPU Sockets The motherboard is the foundational backbone of the computer. Every component connects to it, making its physical size (form factor) and its processor interface (socket type) the two most critical factors in any PC build or upgrade. Motherboard Form Factors The form factor dictates the physical dimensions of the board, the mounting points, and the power supply connections it accepts. Selecting the wrong form factor means the board will not fit in the case, or it will lack the expansion slots needed for the user’s workflow. ATX (Advanced Technology eXtended): The standard for full-sized desktops. Measuring 12 x 9.6 inches, it offers the most expansion slots, multiple RAM slots (typically 4 to 8), and robust power delivery. Ideal for gaming rigs, workstations, and servers. Micro-ATX (mATX): Measuring 9.6 x 9.6 inches, this is a square board that fits into both ATX and mATX cases. It offers fewer expansion slots (usually 3 or 4) but is highly versatile for standard office PCs. Mini-ITX: Measuring a compact 6.7 x 6.7 inches, designed for Small Form Factor (SFF) builds. It typically features only a single expansion slot and two RAM slots. Ideal for home theater PCs (HTPCs) or space-constrained environments. CPU Sockets and Compatibility The CPU socket connects the processor to the motherboard. You must match the socket type exactly, but you also must verify that the motherboard's BIOS supports the specific CPU. LGA (Land Grid Array): Used by Intel. The pins are located inside the socket on the motherboard, and the CPU has flat contact pads. Common modern examples include LGA 1700 (Intel 12th/13th/14th Gen). PGA (Pin Grid Array): Used by AMD (historically). The pins are on the bottom of the CPU, fitting into holes on the motherboard socket. LGA on AMD: Modern AMD Ryzen processors have transitioned to LGA-style sockets, such as LGA 1718 (AM5). When installing a CPU, alignment is critical. Look for the gold triangle or notched corner on the CPU and match it to the triangle or notch on the …
2. Peripherals, Connectors, and Mobile Devices
A marketing director walks into your office holding a sleek, brand-new laptop. "I need to present to the board in ten minutes," she says, "but this laptop only has two USB-C ports, and the boardroom TV only has HDMI. Also, my phone isn't syncing my calendar, and I need to print the handouts on the network printer." As an IT professional, you know exactly what to do. You grab a multi-port adapter, configure her mobile sync settings over the Wi-Fi, and route the print job. This scenario illustrates the daily reality of IT support: bridging the gap between diverse hardware, display technologies, and mobile ecosystems. In Chapter 1, we explored the internal anatomy of PCs—the motherboards, CPUs, RAM, and storage. Now, we step outside the chassis to configure the external ports, connect display technologies, manage printing devices, and upgrade mobile hardware. External Ports and Cables Modern external ports handle both data and, increasingly, power delivery. Understanding the physical connectors and their capabilities is critical for hardware configuration and passing the CompTIA A+ exam. USB (Universal Serial Bus) USB is the ubiquitous standard for connecting peripherals. While the underlying protocols have evolved to offer massive speed increases, the physical connector types are equally important to know. - USB Connector Types: - Type A: The traditional rectangular connector. - Type B: Square-ish connector, often used for older printers. - Mini-USB / Micro-USB: Older, smaller connectors largely replaced by USB-C, though still found on legacy peripherals and some IoT devices. - Type C: The modern, reversible oval connector. It is important to note that USB-C is a form factor, not a data protocol. A USB-C cable might only support USB 2.0 speeds, or it might support Thunderbolt 3/4. - USB Standards (Speeds): - USB 2.0: Up to 480 Mbps. Still common for basic peripherals like keyboards and mice. - USB 3.0 / 3.1 Gen 1 / USB 3.2 Gen 1: 5 Gbps. - USB 3.1 Gen 2 / USB 3.2 Gen 2: 10 Gbps. - USB 3.2 Gen 2x2: 20 Gbps (requires a Type-C connector). Scenario Application: A user complains their new external SSD is copying files slowly. You check the connection and realize they have plugged a USB 3.2 device into a USB 2.0 port (often color-coded black instead of blue or red). Moving the cable to the correct port resolves the bottleneck. Thunderbolt Thunderbolt is a hardware interface that combines PCIe and DisplayPort signals into a single serial data stream, often delivered over a USB-C connector. - Thunderbolt 1 & 2: Used the Mini DisplayPort connector. Supported up to 20 Gbps. - Thunderbolt 3 & 4: Use the USB-C connector. Support 40 Gbps, power delivery up to 100W, and can daisy-chain …
3. Networking Fundamentals and Protocols
IPv4 and IPv6 Addressing Schemes A user plugs a new workstation into the network. The link light turns on, the operating system reports "Internet connected," but no web pages will load. Meanwhile, the workstation next to it works flawlessly. The root cause isn't a faulty cable or a dead website—it's an IP address conflict. Understanding how devices communicate at the network layer is the difference between guessing at connectivity problems and resolving them systematically. Intermediate IT professionals must be fluent in both IPv4 and IPv6 addressing. While IPv4 remains the backbone of most Small Office/Home Office (SOHO) networks, IPv6 is increasingly prevalent and explicitly tested on the CompTIA A+ exam. IPv4 Addressing and Subnet Masks An IPv4 address is a 32-bit logical address divided into four 8-bit octets, separated by periods (e.g., 192.168.1.10). Every IPv4 address contains two parts: the network portion, which identifies the specific network segment, and the host portion, which identifies the specific device on that segment. The subnet mask dictates where the network portion ends and the host portion begins. For a standard SOHO network, the default subnet mask is almost always 255.255.255.0. In binary, 255 translates to eight consecutive 1s. Therefore, a 255.255.255.0 mask means the first three octets (24 bits) represent the network, leaving the final octet (8 bits) for hosts. This specific configuration is frequently denoted using Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR) notation as a /24 network. Network Address: The lowest possible address in the subnet (e.g., 192.168.1.0). It cannot be assigned to a host. Broadcast Address: The highest possible address in the subnet (e.g., 192.168.1.255). Used to send data to all hosts on that specific subnet. It cannot be assigned to a host. Usable Host Range: Everything in between (e.g., 192.168.1.1 through 192.168.1.254), yielding 254 usable addresses on a /24 network. While the internet historically relied on Class A, B, and C boundaries, modern networking uses CIDR to create subnets of arbitrary sizes. However, for SOHO environments, you will almost exclusively configure /24 networks. Private IP Address Ranges Because IPv4 addresses are exhausted, the internet relies on Network Address Translation (NAT), which allows an entire SOHO network to share a single public IP address. To facilitate this, certain IP ranges are reserved as private and cannot be routed across the public internet: 10.0.0.0 to 10.255.255.255 (Large private networks) 172.16.0.0 to 172.31.255.255 (Medium private networks) 192.168.0.0 to 192.168.255.255 (SOHO and home networks) IPv6 Addressing Where IPv4 uses 32 bits, IPv6 uses 128 bits, represented as eight groups of four hexadecimal characters separated by colons (e.g., 2001:0db8:85a3:0000:0000:8a2e:0370:7334). To make these addresses manageable, two rules apply: 1. Leading zeros in any group can be omitted (0db8 becomes db8). 2. A single contiguous block of all-zero groups …
4. Cloud Computing and Virtualization
The Virtualization Paradigm Shift Imagine a small marketing firm that just purchased a high-end workstation with a 24-core CPU, 128GB of DDR5 RAM, and a lightning-fast NVMe SSD. For the first week, the workstation is rendering 4K video flawlessly. But by month two, the firm needs to run a legacy Windows 7 application for an old client, test a new Linux-based web server, and keep the video editing environment pristine. Buying three separate physical machines is cost-prohibitive. The solution isn't more hardware; it's virtualization. Virtualization is the process of using software to create a virtual representation of a physical computing resource, rather than relying solely on the physical hardware itself. This abstraction layer allows a single physical machine to run multiple independent operating systems and applications simultaneously. For the CompTIA A+ technician, virtualization is no longer just a server-room concept; it is a daily reality on endpoint devices, testing benches, and enterprise networks. Hypervisors: The Foundation of Virtualization The software that creates, manages, and runs virtual machines (VMs) is called a hypervisor (also known as a Virtual Machine Monitor, or VMM). The hypervisor sits between the physical hardware and the virtual operating systems, allocating physical resources like CPU cycles, RAM, and storage to the VMs as needed. CompTIA categorizes hypervisors into two distinct types. Type 1 Hypervisors (Bare-Metal) A Type 1 hypervisor installs directly on the physical hardware of the host machine. There is no traditional host operating system sitting between the hypervisor and the hardware. Because the hypervisor interacts directly with the hardware, Type 1 hypervisors offer the highest possible performance and efficiency, making them the standard for enterprise data centers and cloud providers. Examples: VMware ESXi, Microsoft Hyper-V (when installed via Windows Server with the GUI stripped, or the free standalone Hyper-V Server), Citrix Hypervisor, and Proxmox VE. Use Case: Enterprise server consolidation, running dozens of high-performance VMs on a single physical rack server. Type 2 Hypervisors (Hosted) A Type 2 hypervisor installs as a standard software application on top of a conventional host operating system (like Windows, macOS, or Linux). The hypervisor relies on the host OS to manage hardware interactions. While this adds a slight layer of overhead that reduces raw performance, it provides unmatched convenience and flexibility for desktop users. Examples: Oracle VirtualBox, VMware Workstation Pro, Parallels Desktop (macOS), and Microsoft Hyper-V (when enabled as a Windows feature on a standard Windows 10/11 installation). Use Case: Software testing, running legacy applications, malware analysis, and local development environments. Configuring Client-Side Virtualization As an A+ technician, you will frequently configure client-side virtualization using Type 2 hypervisors. Setting up a VM requires careful allocation of the host machine's physical resources. If you recall from Chapter 1, an ATX …
5. Hardware and Network Troubleshooting
A user submits a high-priority ticket: "My computer keeps crashing, and I can't reach the shared network drive to submit my payroll report." When you arrive at their desk, you are faced with a tangled web of potential causes. Is the crashing caused by a failing RAM module or an overheating CPU? Is the network drive inaccessible because of a broken Ethernet cable, a misconfigured IP address, or a router rebooting somewhere else in the building? Effective troubleshooting is not about guessing; it is about applying a systematic methodology to isolate variables. The CompTIA A+ exam heavily tests your ability to follow a logical sequence rather than relying on trial and error. This module applies systematic methodologies to diagnose and resolve hardware, peripheral, and network issues, building directly upon the component knowledge and networking fundamentals established in earlier modules. The Standard Troubleshooting Methodology CompTIA expects you to follow a specific, six-step troubleshooting methodology. While you already know how the hardware works, applying this framework ensures you don't overlook environmental factors or user impact. 1. Identify the problem: Gather information from the user, replicate the issue, and look for environmental factors (e.g., a recently moved desk, a tripped power strip). 2. Establish a theory of probable cause: Look at the symptoms to form a hypothesis. If a display is flickering, a probable cause could be a loose video cable or a failing backlight. 3. Test the theory to determine the cause: If you suspect a bad cable, swap it with a known-good one. If the issue resolves, your theory is confirmed. If not, you must establish a new theory. 4. Establish a plan of action to resolve the problem and identify potential effects: Before making changes, consider the impact. Replacing a failing network switch will temporarily disconnect other users. 5. Implement the solution: Apply the fix, whether it's replacing hardware, reseating a component, or updating a driver. 6. Verify full system functionality and, if applicable, implement preventive measures: Don't just assume the fix worked. Test the system thoroughly. If a PC was overheating due to dust, clean the fans and advise the user to keep the tower off the carpet. 7. Document findings, actions, and outcomes: (CompTIA sometimes lists this as step 6 or 7 depending on the exam version). Documenting the resolution builds a knowledge base for future troubleshooting and fulfills organizational change management policies. Diagnosing Hardware Failures When a PC fails to boot or behaves erratically, the problem often traces back to the internal components discussed in Module 1. Your goal is to isolate the failing subsystem as quickly as possible. POST and Beep Codes When power is applied, the motherboard runs the Power-On Self-Test (POST). If POST fails, …
6. Windows Operating System Administration
A help desk ticket escalates to you: "User's laptop is stuck in an endless boot loop after a failed Windows update. Reimaging is not an option; they have unrecoverable local data." You boot into the Windows Recovery Environment (WinRE), but to fix the underlying issue without destroying the data, you need to manually load the offline registry hive, delete the pending update keys, and revert the boot configuration. This is the reality of Windows administration. It is not just about clicking "Next" through a setup wizard; it is about understanding the underlying architecture of the operating system. For the CompTIA A+ exam, you must know how Windows is installed, how it is structured, and how to manage it using both graphical interfaces and command-line tools. Installing and Upgrading Windows Whether you are deploying a new SSD into a custom-built ATX rig or upgrading a fleet of corporate laptops, the installation method you choose dictates the system's stability and performance. Clean Installations vs. Upgrades A clean installation wipes the target drive and installs a fresh copy of Windows. This is the recommended approach for new hardware (like a newly installed NVMe SSD) or when resolving severe system corruption. It eliminates legacy junk, registry bloat, and potential driver conflicts. An upgrade (or in-place upgrade) installs a new Windows version over an existing one, retaining user data, applications, and settings. Upgrades are convenient but risky. If the previous OS had underlying issues—such as corrupt registry keys or failing drivers—those problems often carry over to the new OS. Installation Methods For the A+ exam, you should be familiar with the primary methods for installing Windows 10 and 11: USB Media: The most common method. You use the Media Creation Tool to download the Windows ISO and flash it to a USB drive. The target PC must be configured to boot from the USB device via the UEFI/BIOS. Network Deployment (PXE): Large enterprises use Preboot Execution Environment (PXE) to boot computers from a network image. The PC uses its network interface controller (NIC) to contact a deployment server, bypassing the need for local installation media. Image Deployment: Administrators use tools like Microsoft Deployment Toolkit (MDT) to create a customized, sysprepped Windows image containing standard corporate software and settings. This image is cloned to multiple machines. Windows 11 Hardware Prerequisites Windows 11 introduced strict hardware requirements that differ significantly from Windows 10. A clean install of Windows 11 will fail if the hardware does not meet these minimums: TPM 2.0: Trusted Platform Module version 2.0 must be present and enabled in the UEFI. Secure Boot: The system must support UEFI Secure Boot. CPU Compatibility: Only specific Intel 8th Gen (and newer) and AMD Ryzen 2000-series (and …
7. macOS, Linux, and Mobile OS Management
A marketing design firm calls the help desk in a panic. Their lead designer is locked out of company resources on her Mac, a Linux-based rendering server is rejecting file uploads from the internal network, and the CEO cannot sync his corporate email on a newly issued Android phone. As the responding technician, you realize that the Windows-centric troubleshooting approach covered in Module 6 won't help you here. To effectively support a modern, diverse fleet of devices, you must understand the unique file systems, management tools, and architectures of macOS, Linux, and mobile operating systems. macOS Navigation and Management Tools While Windows dominates the enterprise market, macOS is heavily prevalent in creative, development, and executive environments. Underneath its graphical interface, macOS is built on a Unix foundation, which heavily influences its file structure and management capabilities. Navigating the macOS File System macOS uses the Apple File System (APFS), optimized for solid-state drives and featuring strong encryption, space sharing, and fast directory sizing. If you are accustomed to Windows, the macOS file structure will feel inverted. Instead of drive letters (like C: or D:), macOS uses a single root directory designated by a forward slash (/). When you open Finder (the macOS equivalent of File Explorer), you are presented with a simplified view. To navigate the actual file system effectively, you should use the "Go to Folder" feature (Shift + Cmd + G) or the Terminal. Key directories to know for the CompTIA A+ exam include: /Applications: The default location for installed applications. (Comparable to C:\Program Files in Windows). /Users: Contains user profile folders (e.g., Documents, Downloads, Desktop). This is equivalent to C:\Users. /Library: Contains system and application support files, preferences, and caches. Note that every user folder also has its own hidden Library folder (/Users/username/Library), which is frequently accessed to clear corrupt application preferences. /System: Contains essential system files required by macOS. In modern macOS versions, this directory is cryptographically sealed and read-only to prevent system integrity tampering. /private/etc: The traditional Unix location for system configuration files. Key Management Tools macOS includes several proprietary tools that technicians must utilize for system management and troubleshooting. Spotlight is macOS’s built-in system-wide search engine. Accessed via the magnifying glass in the menu bar or by pressing Cmd + Space, Spotlight indexes the file system, applications, and even specific file metadata (like email contents or document authors). For a technician, Spotlight is the fastest way to launch diagnostic tools, find specific preference files (.plist), or locate a user's misplaced project files without manually digging through the directory tree. Keychain Access is macOS’s built-in password management system. It securely stores passwords, Wi-Fi credentials, encryption keys, and digital certificates in an encrypted database. When a user …
8. Cybersecurity Fundamentals
A help desk technician receives a frantic call from a marketing director. She clicked a link in an email that looked like it came from the company’s IT department, entered her network credentials, and now all the files on her desktop are renamed with a .locked extension. A text file on her screen demands $2,000 in cryptocurrency to restore access. This single event encompasses nearly every core security objective you will face on the CompTIA A+ exam: a social engineering attack (phishing) leading to malware execution (ransomware), exploiting a lack of access control enforcement, and succeeding because the data at rest was inadequately protected. As an intermediate IT professional, you already know the hardware and software landscape. You understand how data moves across networks and how operating systems are managed. Now, we must look at those same systems through the lens of vulnerability. Protecting devices, networks, and data requires a layered approach—combining logical access controls, physical security, and encryption to mitigate the exact types of attacks described above. Malware and Social Engineering Attacks Threats rarely exist in a vacuum. Modern attacks often combine social engineering (manipulating the user) with malware (malicious software) to bypass technical defenses. To effectively troubleshoot and secure systems, you must be able to quickly differentiate between these threats. Types of Malware Malware is categorized by its behavior and propagation method. - Ransomware: Encrypts user files or locks the operating system, demanding payment for decryption. It often uses strong, asymmetric encryption, making brute-force recovery impossible without the attacker's private key. - Trojan: Disguises itself as legitimate software. A user might download a "PDF reader" that functions as a reader but simultaneously installs a backdoor. Trojans do not self-replicate. - Worm: Self-replicating malware that spreads across networks without user intervention. Unlike viruses, worms do not need to attach themselves to a host file. - Virus: Attaches to a clean executable file and activates when the user runs the host program. Viruses can spread to other files on the same system but typically require human action to move between machines. - Spyware: Operates covertly to gather user data, keystrokes (keyloggers), or browsing habits, sending this information back to an attacker. - Rootkit: Malware designed to gain administrative (root) access while actively hiding its presence from the operating system and standard antivirus scans. Removal often requires booting into a clean, external OS environment. - Cryptominers: Hijack system resources (CPU/GPU) to mine cryptocurrency. While not always destructive, they severely degrade system performance and can cause thermal throttling or hardware degradation over time. Social Engineering Attacks Technical defenses like firewalls and antivirus software are useless if an attacker can simply convince a user to hand over their credentials. Social engineering exploits human …
9. Software Troubleshooting and Security Operations
A user walks up to your desk, laptop in hand. They were browsing the web when suddenly, their browser locked up, a loud alarm started playing through the speakers, and a message appeared demanding immediate payment in gift cards to "unlock" their files. At the same time, another user emails the help desk complaining that their company-issued smartphone is draining from 100% to 0% in under two hours. As a CompTIA A+ technician, you are the first responder for these exact scenarios. You already know how to build the machine and configure the OS; now you must learn how to rescue it. This module focuses on resolving OS, application, and security-related issues, bridging the gap between routine administration and critical incident response. Malware Eradication and Recovery When a system is compromised by malware, standard OS operations are often hindered. Malware is designed to be persistent, meaning it loads itself into memory alongside the OS. To successfully remove malware, you must prevent it from loading in the first place. Using Safe Mode and Bootable Media Safe Mode loads Windows with a minimal set of drivers and services. If a system can still boot into Windows, Safe Mode often prevents the malware from executing its payload, allowing you to run scans and remove the infection manually. Bootable media (often called a "rescue disk" or "WinPE" environment) is used when the OS is too damaged to boot normally or when the malware actively blocks antivirus software. By booting from external media (like a USB flash drive containing a Linux-based antivirus environment or the Windows Preinstallation Environment), you bypass the infected OS entirely. The antivirus scanner then examines the dormant files on the hard drive from the outside. Specialized Remediation Tools Running a standard antivirus scan is rarely enough for deeply embedded malware. Intermediate technicians rely on specialized tools to restore system integrity: Add or Remove Programs / Apps & Features: Many modern malware strains disguise themselves as legitimate browser extensions or "system optimizers." Check here first to see if the offending software can be cleanly uninstalled. Task Manager: Used to identify and terminate suspicious processes that are currently running. Look for processes running from temporary folders or with randomly generated names. System Configuration (msconfig): Malware often uses the Startup tab to launch at boot. While Windows 10/11 moved most startup management to Task Manager, msconfig is still vital for checking Boot options and general Services. Registry Editor (regedit): The registry is a common hiding spot for malware persistence. Technicians often check the Run keys (HKLM\Software\Microsoft\Windows\CurrentVersion\Run and the HKCU equivalent) to locate and delete malicious startup entries. Warning: Always back up the registry before modifying it. Dedicated Malware Scanners: Tools like Malwarebytes or the …
10. Operational Procedures and Professionalism
Safety Procedures and Environmental Controls A technician arrives at a workstation to install a new DDR5 DIMM. They pull the module from its anti-static bag, walk across a carpeted floor in their wool socks, and snap the RAM into the motherboard. The user boots the PC, and within minutes, the system blue-screens. The RAM is dead. In IT, the most complex problems often have the simplest origins: a lack of basic operational safety. Protecting hardware from damage and protecting yourself from injury are the foundational steps of any operational procedure. Electrostatic Discharge (ESD) ESD occurs when two objects with different electrical potentials come into contact, causing a sudden flow of electricity between them. While a static shock might only sting your finger, it carries enough voltage to permanently destroy sensitive microelectronics, including CPUs, RAM, and chipsets. To prevent ESD damage, adhere to the following practices: - Antistatic wrist straps: Wear a wrist strap connected to a grounded surface (like the metal chassis of the PC) using a 1 megaohm resistor. This equalizes the electrical charge between your body and the equipment. - Antistatic mats: Place components on an antistatic mat that is grounded. - ESD bags: When transporting components like motherboards or RAM, always keep them in metallized antistatic bags. Never place a component on top of the bag, as the exterior is often conductive. - Humidity control: Maintain relative humidity between 40% and 60%. Dry air promotes static buildup. - Self-grounding: If no wrist strap is available, touch the bare metal of the computer case (while it is unplugged) before handling components to discharge static. Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS) An MSDS (now often referred to simply as a Safety Data Sheet, or SDS) is a document that contains information on the potential hazards and safe handling of chemicals. In IT, you will encounter chemicals such as: - Isopropyl alcohol (for cleaning thermal paste or contacts) - Compressed air dusters (which can be harmful if inhaled or exposed to heat) - Laser printer toner and cleaning solvents The SDS details health hazards, first-aid measures, flammability, and proper disposal. If a technician spills a chemical or experiences accidental exposure, the SDS is the immediate reference for mitigating harm. Environmental Disposal Guidelines Electronic waste (e-waste) contains heavy metals (lead, mercury, cadmium) and toxic flame retardants. Dumping them in standard trash is both environmentally devastating and often illegal. Comply with the following disposal protocols: - Batteries: Lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries found in laptops and mobile devices are highly reactive and a fire hazard. They must be taken to designated e-waste or battery recycling centers. - Toner and Ink: Toner cartridges should be sealed in bags and returned to the manufacturer or a recycling …
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