Free Gardening learning guide

How to Build a Compost Bin: A Beginner's Guide

Name: How to Build a Compost Bin: A Beginner's Guide
Author: Tanmay Kalbande

How to Build a Compost Bin: A Beginner's Guide — a free beginner-level guide covering how to build a compost bin. Learn with clear explanations, real...

88 min read10 chaptersbeginner

1. Introduction to Composting

Why a Kitchen Scraps Pile Can Be a Super‑Power for Your Garden Imagine you’re standing in your kitchen, a bowl of banana peels, coffee grounds, and wilted lettuce skins on the counter. Instead of tossing them into the trash, you drop them into a small bin that sits under your sink. A few weeks later, you scoop the dark, crumbly material from that bin and sprinkle it around the roses in your backyard. Those roses burst into richer, more vibrant blooms, and you’ve kept a handful of plastic bags out of the landfill. This simple exchange—food waste for garden gold—is the heart of composting. What Is Compost? Compost is the finished product of a natural process called decomposition, where organic (once‑living) material is broken down by a community of tiny organisms into a dark, earthy substance rich in nutrients. In its raw form, the material you add to a compost pile (often called feedstock) can be anything that once grew or lived: fruit and vegetable scraps, coffee grounds, fallen leaves, grass clippings, and even small branches. When the right conditions are met, microbes, fungi, and tiny animals turn this jumble into a stable, soil‑like amendment that improves plant health and soil structure. From Raw Waste to Stable Matter 1. Fresh organic matter – bright green leaves, kitchen scraps, etc. 2. Active decomposition – microbes consume the material, producing heat and gases. 3. Maturation – the pile cools, the material stabilizes, and the nutrient‑rich humus remains. The end result, compost, is low in pathogens, free of recognizable food pieces, and contains a balanced mix of macro‑nutrients (nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium) and micronutrients that plants need. How Nature Breaks Down Organic Matter Nature’s recycling plant works 24/7, driven by three main ingredients: microorganisms, oxygen, and water. Think of these as the three legs of a stool; remove one and the whole process stalls. 1. Microorganisms – the Engine - Bacteria – the fastest workers, especially the mesophilic bacteria that thrive at moderate temperatures (20‑40 °C / 68‑104 °F). They begin the breakdown of sugars and proteins. - Thermophilic bacteria – heat‑loving microbes that dominate when the pile warms above 45 °C (113 °F). They accelerate the decomposition of tougher materials like cellulose and kill many weed seeds and pathogens. - Fungi – excel at breaking down complex carbon structures such as lignin found in woody material. - Actinomycetes – filamentous bacteria that give mature compost its earthy smell; they thrive in the later stages. All these organisms consume organic compounds for energy, releasing carbon dioxide (CO₂), water vapor, and heat as by‑products. 2. Oxygen – the Breath of Life Aerobic (oxygen‑using) decomposition is the most efficient and odor‑free pathway. When oxygen is plentiful, …

2. Compost Ingredients: Greens and Browns

Why the Right Mix Matters Imagine you’re standing over a freshly built compost bin, a basket of kitchen scraps in one hand and a pile of dry leaves in the other. You wonder: “If I just dump everything in, will it turn into rich soil?” The answer is yes—but only if the ingredients are balanced. Compost is the result of active decomposition carried out by a community of microorganisms (bacteria, fungi, actinomycetes) that need two primary “food sources”: nitrogen and carbon. Nitrogen fuels the rapid growth of microbes, while carbon provides the energy they need to build new cells and generate heat. When these elements are supplied in the right proportion, the microbes thrive, generate heat, and break down the organic matter efficiently. Too much of one or the other stalls the process, leading to smelly, slow‑decomposing piles that never mature. The two ingredient categories—greens (nitrogen‑rich) and browns (carbon‑rich)—are the building blocks that let you control this balance. Mastering what belongs in each group, how much, and what to keep out, is the foundation for a successful compost bin. --- What Are “Greens”? Greens are materials that are high in nitrogen, moisture, and readily degradable proteins, sugars, and starches. In compost terminology they are often called nitrogen‑rich feedstock because they supply the nitrogen that microbes need for rapid growth and metabolism. Typical Green Sources | Household (Kitchen) | Yard / Garden | |----------------------|----------------| | Fruit peels (apple, banana, citrus) | Fresh grass clippings (no more than 3 inches tall) | | Vegetable scraps (carrots, lettuce, tomato cores) | Young plant cuttings (herb stems, flower heads) | | Coffee grounds and tea bags (no plastic) | Green weed tops (avoid mature, woody weeds) | | Eggshells (crushed) – provide calcium, not nitrogen but help balance pH | Fresh garden waste (e.g., tomato vines) | | Fresh fruit (overripe, bruised) | Fruit‑tree prunings (soft, not woody) | | Kitchen scraps with high moisture (e.g., watermelon rind) | Kitchen garden waste (e.g., zucchini, cucumber) | Key traits of greens - Moisture content: Usually 60‑70 % water, which keeps microbes hydrated. - Fast‑decomposing: Break down within weeks under the right conditions. - Odor potential: Because of their high nitrogen, greens can emit a “rotten egg” smell if the pile becomes anaerobic (lacks oxygen). How Greens Support Microbial Activity When greens are added, mesophilic bacteria (those that thrive at moderate temperatures) quickly colonize the material, consuming the nitrogen and producing heat. As the temperature rises, thermophilic bacteria take over, accelerating the breakdown of proteins and sugars. This heat generation is essential for killing weed seeds and pathogens, a benefit highlighted in the earlier “Introduction to Composting”. --- What Are “Browns”? Browns are the carbon‑rich counterpart …

3. Planning Your Compost Bin

Where to Put Your Compost Bin When you first spot a perfect spot for a compost bin—perhaps a sunny corner of the backyard or a shady nook under the eaves—ask yourself three quick questions: 1. Will water drain away or pool around the bin? 2. Is the site exposed to too much direct sun or wind? 3. Can you reach it easily with a wheelbarrow or garden cart? Answering these questions early saves you from a soggy, smelly pile later on. 1. Drainage – The Unsung Hero Moisture is essential for the microorganisms discussed in Introduction to Composting, but excess water creates anaerobic (oxygen‑starved) zones that slow decomposition and produce unpleasant odors. - Ideal condition: The base of the bin should sit on a material that lets water escape—gravel, coarse sand, or a shallow trench. - Quick test: Dig a small hole (10 cm deep) where you plan to locate the bin. Fill it with water and watch how long it takes to disappear. If it lingers more than 24 hours, improve drainage before installing the bin. 2. Sunlight – Balancing Heat and Moisture Sunlight influences temperature, which in turn affects the activity of mesophilic and thermophilic bacteria (see Introduction to Composting). - Full sun (≥ 6 hours/day): Raises internal temperature, speeding up the thermophilic phase. Great for winter composting, but watch for drying out. - Partial shade (3–5 hours): Provides a gentler, more stable environment—good for most climates and for beginners who may forget to water regularly. A simple rule of thumb: place the bin where it gets morning sun and afternoon shade if you live in a hot region; otherwise a sunny spot works fine. 3. Wind and Air Flow Good airflow supplies the oxygen needed for aerobic decomposition. A windy location can help, but strong gusts may dry the pile too quickly. - Shelter from prevailing winds (e.g., behind a fence or shrub) helps retain moisture while still allowing air exchange. - Avoid low‑lying depressions where cold air settles, especially in winter, as this can slow microbial activity. 4. Accessibility Think about the daily routine of adding “greens” and “browns” (the feedstock described in Compost Ingredients: Greens and Browns). - Proximity to the kitchen: A bin within a few meters of the back door reduces the temptation to toss scraps in the trash. - Pathway width: Ensure a clear, at least 60 cm wide path for a wheelbarrow or a small cart. --- How Big Should Your Bin Be? The size of the compost bin is directly linked to how much organic waste your household generates. Too small, and you’ll have to dump material before it fully decomposes; too large, and the pile may stay “cold” and …

4. Gathering Tools and Materials

A Backyard Project in the Making When Maya moved into her first house, the garden was already bursting with kitchen scraps, fallen leaves, and a healthy dose of enthusiasm for the composting cycle she’d read about in Introduction to Composting. She imagined a tidy wooden box in the corner of her patio, a place where the “feedstock” she’d learned to balance—greens and browns—could turn into dark, crumbly soil. The first step? A quick trip to the local hardware store. Maya left the store with a cart full of nails, a couple of 2‑by‑4 boards, and a half‑finished plan. Back home, she realized she was missing a drill, a saw blade that could cut through the lumber, and even a pair of safety goggles. The project stalled, and the garden’s organic matter began to smell. This scenario is all too common for beginners. The gap between a good idea and a functional compost bin often narrows to a handful of tools, the right materials, and a few safety habits. Below is a step‑by‑step guide that equips you with everything you need to move from concept—covered in Planning Your Compost Bin—to a sturdy, ready‑to‑use structure. --- Hand Tools You’ll Actually Use A “hand tool” is any device operated primarily by human force rather than electricity or gasoline. For a standard compost bin, you only need a small, focused set. Each tool below is described with its purpose, a brief definition of any unfamiliar term, and tips for selecting a beginner‑friendly version. | Tool | Why It’s Needed | Quick Definition | Beginner Tip | |------|----------------|------------------|--------------| | Cordless Drill | Drives screws, creates pilot holes, and can drill small holes for ventilation. | A portable electric screwdriver that uses interchangeable drill bits to make holes of various diameters. | Choose a 12‑V or 18‑V model with a battery life of at least 30 minutes; most home‑center brands include a basic set of bits. | | Drill Bit Set | Matches the size of the screws you’ll use (usually 6–10) and makes holes for hardware cloth. | Hardened metal shafts that spin with the drill to cut holes. | A 5‑piece set covering 1/8", 3/16", 1/4", 5/16", and 3/8" will cover most needs. | | Hand Saw or Circular Saw | Cuts lumber to the exact lengths required for the bin’s frame. | A hand saw is a manual blade with a handle; a circular saw is a powered blade that rotates 360°. | If you only need a few cuts, a sturdy hand saw (e.g., a 15‑inch panel saw) is cheaper, quieter, and safer. | | Hammer | Drives nails and helps align wood pieces during assembly. | A weighted head attached to …

5. Building a Wooden Pallet Bin

A Backyard Rescue: Turning Kitchen Scraps into Soil Gold When Maya’s family started a small vegetable garden, the kitchen waste piled up faster than the carrots could be harvested. A quick trip to the local garden center revealed a stack of used wooden pallets abandoned beside a loading dock. The price tag was zero, the material was sturdy, and the shape was already close to what Maya needed for a compost bin. Within an afternoon she had a functional, square‑sided, open‑top bin that kept the scraps contained, allowed air to flow, and stayed firmly in place even on a breezy spring day. If you have a similar stash of pallets—or can locate a safe source—you can replicate Maya’s success with the step‑by‑step method outlined below. By the end of this chapter you will be able to: Source and prepare safe, untreated wooden pallets for construction. Assemble the pallets into a sturdy, open‑top square structure. Secure the bin to the ground or to itself so it won’t shift as you add feedstock. --- 1. Finding Pallets You Can Trust 1.1 What Makes a Pallet “Safe”? A safe pallet is one that: Has not been chemically treated (e.g., with methyl bromide, a pesticide, or a preservative that can leach into compost). Shows no signs of rot, mold, or insect damage that could weaken the structure. Is free of metal staples or nails that protrude and could puncture your compost cover later. 1.2 Where to Look | Source | Tips for Getting Good Pallets | |--------|------------------------------| | Supermarket loading docks | Ask the manager for “clean, untreated pallets.” | | Construction sites (with permission) | Look for pallets stamped “HT” (heat‑treated) – these are safe, whereas “MB” indicates methyl‑bromide treatment and should be avoided. | | Recycling centers | Many accept pallets for free; verify they are not marked with chemical treatment symbols. | | Online community boards | Neighbors often give away pallets after moving. | 1.3 Inspecting Your Find 1. Check the stamp: The three‑letter code is usually stamped on the stringer (the long, horizontal board). Accept only HT (heat‑treated) or UNT (untreated). 2. Look for damage: Reject any pallet with broken slats, large cracks, or signs of fungal growth. 3. Feel for loose nails: Gently run your hand over the surface; if a nail pops out easily, it will need to be driven flush later. 1.4 Cleaning and Preparing 1. Remove loose debris – sweep or use a leaf blower. 2. Wash with mild soap and water – a garden hose and a scrub brush will do. Rinse thoroughly and let dry completely (at least 24 hours). 3. Flatten warped slats – if a pallet is slightly bowed, place it …

6. Building a Wire Mesh Bin

A Backyard Solution: Why a Wire Mesh Bin Might Be Your Best Bet Imagine you’ve just finished a weekend garden clean‑up. The greens you’ve collected are still crisp, the brown leaves are dry and crumbly, and you’re eager to start the decomposition process. But your yard is small, the soil is already compacted, and a bulky wooden pallet bin would be difficult to move around. A lightweight, cylindrical compost bin made from wire mesh (often called hardware cloth) can be assembled in a single afternoon, fits into tight spaces, and lets air flow freely—exactly the conditions your compost needs, as you learned in Introduction to Composting. This chapter walks you through every step, from measuring the mesh to anchoring the finished cylinder to the ground. By the end, you’ll have a sturdy, portable bin ready for the greens and browns you’ll pile in later chapters. --- 1. Choosing the Right Wire Mesh Before any cutting begins, pick a mesh that balances durability, airflow, and ease of handling. | Mesh Type | Typical Material | Common Gauge | Mesh Opening (mm) | When to Use | |-----------|------------------|---------------|-------------------|------------| | Hardware cloth | Galvanized steel (zinc‑coated) | 16‑20 | 6‑10 | General purpose, good strength | | Welded wire | Galvanized steel | 22‑24 | 4‑6 | Lighter loads, easier to bend | | Plastic mesh | UV‑stabilized polypropylene | N/A | 5‑8 | Temporary setups, no rust concerns | \ Gauge refers to the thickness of the wire; a lower number means a thicker wire. For a compost bin that will hold several cubic feet of material and be turned occasionally, 16‑18 gauge hardware cloth is a solid choice—strong enough to resist deformation while still letting air and moisture pass. Why metal? - Durability: It resists the pressure of turning the pile. - Ventilation: The open squares allow oxygen (essential for the aerobic microbes you’ll meet later) to circulate. - Weight: Compared with a solid wooden bin, metal mesh is far lighter, making relocation simple. If you live in a highly corrosive environment (near the sea, for example), consider a stainless‑steel mesh or apply a rust‑inhibiting spray after assembly. --- 2. Planning Your Bin Dimensions The size of your bin should reflect the amount of feedstock you expect to process at any one time. As discussed in Planning Your Compost Bin, a rule of thumb is to aim for a capacity of 1–2 cubic meters for a typical household. 2.1 Determining Height and Diameter 1. Decide the height – 1 m (≈ 3 ft) works well for most gardens; taller bins become harder to turn. 2. Choose a diameter – 0.6 m (≈ 2 ft) gives a comfortable interior volume while staying …

7. Layering and Starting Your Pile

Getting the First Layer Right Imagine you’ve just finished assembling your new wooden pallet bin – the scent of fresh cut wood still hangs in the air. You stand there, ready to fill it, and wonder: “What goes in first, and why does it matter?” The answer sets the tone for everything that follows. The initial layering is not just about aesthetics; it creates the environment where microorganisms (bacteria, fungi, actinomycetes) can thrive and start the chain reaction of decomposition. Why the Bottom Layer Matters 1. Drainage and Aeration – A well‑structured base lets excess water escape and supplies oxygen (O₂) to the microbes that need it. 2. Microbial Inoculation – Introducing a small amount of “seed” material (an activator) jump‑starts the colony of mesophilic bacteria that will later give way to thermophilic bacteria as the pile warms. 3. Structural Stability – The first few inches provide a solid platform for the rest of the pile, preventing the bin walls from bowing or the contents from shifting too much when you turn the pile later. The Classic “Brown‑Green‑Brown” Starter The most reliable recipe for a beginner’s first load is the Brown‑Green‑Brown sequence: | Step | What to add | Why it helps | |------|-------------|--------------| | 1 | Coarse browns (e.g., shredded cardboard, straw, small branches) – about 4–6 cm deep | Provides carbon (the “brown” element) and creates air pockets for oxygen. | | 2 | Greens (e.g., kitchen scraps, fresh garden clippings) – about 2–3 cm | Supplies nitrogen (the “green” element) that fuels microbial growth. | | 3 | Fine browns (e.g., shredded newspaper, sawdust) – another 4–6 cm | Caps the greens, traps moisture, and prevents odors by covering the high‑nitrogen material. | Tip: If you’re using a wire mesh bin, the coarse browns also serve as a protective filter that keeps small animals from burrowing in. A Real‑World Example Sarah, a first‑time composting homeowner, followed the above recipe but added a twist: she mixed a handful of kitchen‑scrub brush bristles (rich in natural soap) into her coarse brown layer. The bristles broke down slowly, releasing extra carbon and a tiny amount of nitrogen, which gave her pile a gentle, steady heat rise within the first week—proof that small adjustments can fine‑tune the process. --- Achieving the Perfect Moisture Level Moisture is the “life‑blood” of a compost pile. Too dry, and microbes go dormant; too wet, and the environment turns anaerobic (oxygen‑free), leading to foul smells and slower decomposition. The “Damp Sponge” Test The most intuitive way to gauge moisture is the damp‑sponge test: 1. Grab a handful of mixed compost material. 2. Squeeze it firmly in your hand. 3. Observe the moisture that drips out: | …

8. Maintaining and Turning the Compost

Why Turning Matters Imagine you’ve just finished layering your first pile of kitchen scraps and shredded leaves in the wooden pallet bin you built last week. Two weeks later, the bin looks like a soggy, smelly mess, and the garden soil nearby has taken on a sour odor. What went wrong? The missing step is turning – the regular mixing of the compost mass to supply oxygen, distribute moisture, and spread heat. When you turn the pile, you keep the microscopic workers—bacteria, fungi, and actinomycetes—busy and happy, turning raw feedstock into dark, crumbly humus. --- The Science of Aeration Compost is a living system that needs oxygen to thrive. The aerobic microorganisms that dominate a healthy pile consume the carbon (C) in your greens and browns, releasing carbon dioxide (CO₂), water vapor, and heat as by‑products. Without enough oxygen, the community shifts to anaerobic microbes, which produce unpleasant smells (like rotten eggs) and slow the decomposition process. Turning physically re‑introduces air into the interior of the pile, breaking up compacted zones and exposing fresh material to the active front of the microbial community. This simple act also: Distributes heat generated by thermophilic bacteria, helping the entire mass reach temperatures that kill most weed seeds and pathogens. Evenly spreads moisture, preventing dry spots that halt activity or overly wet zones that encourage anaerobic pockets. Integrates new additions, ensuring that fresh greens are not buried under a blanket of brown material where they cannot access oxygen. --- Tools of the Trade | Tool | Typical Use | When to Choose | |------|-------------|----------------| | Pitchfork | General turning; works well in larger, looser piles | Small to medium bins, budget‑friendly | | Compost Aerator (spindle) | Pushes a long, perforated rod into the center and lifts, creating a channel of air | Tight or very dry piles, or when you want a quick “air‑pipe” without moving material far | | Garden Shovel | Heavy‑duty turning of compacted material | Wire mesh bins with a lot of coarse wood chips | | Gloves & Protective Clothing | Keep hands clean and protect against sharp objects | Always recommended | All of these tools are covered in Gathering Tools and Materials; you likely already have a pitchfork or aerator on hand. Choose the one that feels comfortable and that matches the size of your bin. --- How Often Should You Turn? There is no one‑size‑fits‑all schedule, but most beginner composters find success with the “once‑a‑week” rule. Adjust the frequency based on three observable factors: 1. Temperature – If the pile stays hot (above 55 °C / 130 °F) for several days, you can wait a bit longer before the next turn. 2. Moisture – A …

9. Troubleshooting Common Compost Problems

When the Compost Stinks: A Real‑World Snapshot You’re pulling back the lid of your wooden pallet bin on a sunny Saturday morning. Instead of the earthy, fresh scent you expected, a sharp, ammonia‑like odor assaults your nose. A quick glance shows a soggy, clumped mess at the bottom, and a few curious mice have made a nest among the layers. What went wrong, and how can you turn this backyard disaster into a thriving, odor‑free compost system? The answers lie in three common problem areas: foul odors, pests, and slow decomposition. By learning to diagnose the root causes and applying targeted fixes, you’ll keep your compost healthy and productive throughout the season. --- 1. Diagnosing and Fixing Foul Odors 1.1 Why Compost Smells Bad A compost pile should emit a mild, soil‑like aroma. Offensive smells usually indicate an imbalance in the four key parameters that drive active decomposition: | Parameter | What a problem looks like | Typical cause | |-----------|--------------------------|---------------| | Carbon‑rich (browns) vs. Nitrogen‑rich (greens) | Overly sour, ammonia‑like smell | Too many greens, not enough browns | | Oxygen (aerobic conditions) | Stagnant, sour odor | Compacted layers, insufficient turning | | Moisture | Wet, soggy, “rotten egg” smell | Excess water, poor drainage | | Temperature | Cool, slow‑acting microbes | Low heat, often from poor carbon‑nitrogen balance | When any of these factors drift out of their optimal ranges, the microbial community shifts toward anaerobic bacteria (those that thrive without oxygen). These microbes produce volatile compounds—such as ammonia, hydrogen sulfide, and short‑chain fatty acids—that create the unpleasant odors you’re experiencing. 1.2 Quick “Smell Test” Checklist 1. Sniff the surface. A faint, earthy smell is good. A sharp, pungent odor signals a problem. 2. Feel the material. It should be damp like a wrung‑out sponge—not dripping wet or bone‑dry. 3. Look for clumps. Large, compacted patches often hide low‑oxygen zones. If two or more of these signs appear, move to the corrective steps below. 1.3 Step‑by‑Step Fixes 1.3.1 Re‑balance Greens and Browns 1. Add more browns (e.g., shredded newspaper, dry leaves, straw). 2. Mix thoroughly to distribute the carbon throughout the pile. 3. Aim for a 2:1 to 3:1 ratio of browns to greens by volume—a guideline you learned in Compost Ingredients: Greens and Browns. Tip: If you’re unsure of the ratio, use the “hand test”: a handful of greens should feel roughly half the size of a handful of browns. 1.3.2 Restore Aeration 1. Turn the pile using a pitchfork or shovel. Break up any compacted zones, especially at the bottom. 2. Introduce coarse material (small branches, wood chips) to create air channels. 3. Consider a vent: For wire mesh bins, ensure the mesh size …

10. Harvesting and Using Finished Compost

Spotting the Finish Line: How to Know Your Compost Is Ready Imagine you’re standing over a pile that has been turning for weeks. You lift a handful, squeeze it, and—no heat, no foul odor, just a sweet, earthy scent. The material feels like damp soil, crumbly yet holding together in small clumps. This is the moment you’ve been waiting for: the compost is fully cured and ready to be harvested. Visual Clues | What to Look For | What It Means | |------------------|---------------| | Uniform dark brown or black color (almost like rich potting soil) | Organic matter has broken down completely; carbon has been mineralized. | | Absence of recognizable food scraps, leaves, or twigs | All feedstock has been transformed. | | No large, intact pieces larger than a pea | Indicates the decomposition process has reached completion. | | Smooth, fine texture (may feel slightly gritty) | Indicates the material has been fully broken down into humus. | Textural Clues - Moist but not soggy – When you squeeze a handful, a few drops of water should be released, but the material should stay together. - Crumbly yet cohesive – It should fall apart like garden soil, yet you can form a loose ball that holds together briefly. - No “wet, sour” smell – A sour, ammonia‑like odor signals unfinished material; a pleasant, earthy aroma means it’s mature. Tip: If you’re unsure, perform the “jar test.” Fill a clear jar halfway with compost, add water, and shake. Let it settle for 24 hours. The material that sinks is the stable, finished compost; anything that floats is still immature. Separating the Good from the Not‑Yet‑Done Even a well‑cured pile can hide a few stubborn bits—large pieces of woody material, fresh grass clippings, or un‑decomposed fruit skins. Removing these ensures that what you spread is uniformly mature and prevents future “hot spots” in your garden. The Simple Screen A compost screen (also called a sieve or sifter) is a sturdy frame with a mesh opening, typically ½–¾ inch (1.3–1.9 cm) wide. If you don’t have a commercial screen, a piece of hardware cloth or an old window screen works just as well. Steps to Screen Your Compost 1. Prepare a clean workspace – Lay down a tarp or a sheet of plywood to catch the sifted material. 2. Place the screen over the collection area – Secure it so it won’t wobble. 3. Add a handful of compost to the top – Use a garden trowel or your hands. 4. Shake gently – The fine, finished compost will fall through; larger pieces stay on top. 5. Collect the screened compost – Transfer it to a wheelbarrow, bucket, or directly …