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CompTIA Network+ Exam Prep Guide
CompTIA Network+ Exam Prep Guide — a free intermediate-level guide covering how to pass the comptia network+ exam. Learn with clear explanations, real...
What you will learn
- Network Fundamentals and the OSI Model
- Cabling, Connectors, and Physical Media
- Ethernet Switching and VLANs
- IP Addressing and Subnetting
- Routing and Network Infrastructure Services
- Wireless and Cloud Networking
- Network Operations and Management
- Network Security Principles and Design
- Troubleshooting Methodology and Tools
- Resolving Common Network Issues
1. Network Fundamentals and the OSI Model
The 3 AM Outage At 3:12 AM, a Level 1 help desk technician receives a critical alert: a core switch in the data center is unreachable. The technician can ping the router upstream, but the servers downstream are completely isolated. Is it a severed cable? A broadcast storm? A misconfigured routing protocol? Without a structured framework, the technician is left guessing—randomly swapping cables and rebooting devices in the hope that something works. But with a solid grasp of the OSI model, the technician can quickly isolate the problem: the router responds at Layer 3, but the switch's MAC address table is unresponsive, pointing to a Layer 2 failure. This scenario highlights why the CompTIA Network+ exam—and networking itself—relies heavily on structured models. Before you can troubleshoot, design, or scale a network, you must understand its fundamental building blocks. Network Types and Scales Networks are classified by their geographic reach and organizational purpose. For the Network+ exam, you must differentiate between four primary network types. Personal Area Network (PAN) A PAN connects devices within the immediate vicinity of a single person, typically within a 10-meter radius. Common technologies: Bluetooth, Zigbee, NFC. Application: Connecting wireless earbuds to a smartphone, or a fitness tracker to a mobile app. Local Area Network (LAN) A LAN connects computers and devices within a limited geographical area, such as a single building, office, or campus. LANs are typically owned and maintained by a single organization. Common technologies: Ethernet (IEEE 802.3), Wi-Fi (IEEE 802.11). Application: An office floor where desktops connect via cables to switches, and laptops connect to wireless access points. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) A MAN spans a larger geographic area than a LAN but is smaller than a WAN, typically covering a city or a large campus. MANs often interconnect multiple LANs. Common technologies: Metro Ethernet, WiMAX. Application: A city municipality connecting its public libraries, police stations, and administrative buildings across a 20-mile radius. Wide Area Network (WAN) A WAN spans large geographic areas—states, countries, or continents. Unlike LANs, organizations rarely own the entire WAN infrastructure; they typically lease connections from Internet Service Providers (ISPs) or telecommunications companies. Common technologies: MPLS, T-carriers (T1/T3), SONET, satellite. Application: A multinational corporation connecting its headquarters in New York to its manufacturing facilities in Taiwan. The OSI Model: A Framework for Network Communication The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model is a conceptual framework that standardizes the functions of a telecommunication or computing system into seven abstract layers. Developed by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), it allows hardware and software from different vendors to communicate seamlessly. For the Network+ exam, you must memorize the layers, their functions, and the protocols/devices that operate at each layer. A common mnemonic to …
2. Cabling, Connectors, and Physical Media
A multinational corporation experiences intermittent network drops across an entire floor of their building. Users complain that large file transfers stall, and the accounting department's nightly database sync fails. The network team checks the switches, verifies the DHCP server is handing out IPv4 addresses correctly, and confirms TCP sessions are attempting to establish. The logical network is perfectly healthy. The problem? A batch of patch cables was routed too tightly around an elevator shaft, acting as an antenna for electromagnetic interference (EMI) and corrupting the electrical signals representing the data. As we saw in the OSI model, Layer 1 is the Physical layer—the foundation of all network communication. If the physical signaling fails, the protocols at the upper layers cannot compensate. This chapter dives deep into the tangible media that carry our data: copper cabling, fiber optics, and the invisible spectrum of wireless frequencies. Copper Cabling and Ethernet Standards Copper cabling remains the backbone of Local Area Networks (LANs) due to its low cost, ease of termination, and reliable performance over short distances. Data is transmitted over copper by varying electrical voltage levels. Because copper is susceptible to external electromagnetic interference, the physical construction of the cable is critical to maintaining signal integrity. Twisted Pair Cabling The most common copper cable type in modern networks is unshielded twisted pair (UTP). UTP consists of eight individual copper wires, grouped into four pairs. Each pair is twisted around each other at specific rates (twists per inch) to cancel out EMI and crosstalk (the bleeding of signals from one wire to another). In environments with high electrical noise, such as factory floors or areas with heavy machinery, shielded twisted pair (STP) is used. STP includes a foil or braided metal shield around the individual pairs or the entire bundle of wires, which must be properly grounded to drain the intercepted interference. Ethernet Standards and Categories The IEEE defines Ethernet standards for transmitting data over UTP cabling. These are designated by the 100BASE-T naming convention, where "100" represents the speed in megabits per second (Mbps), "BASE" stands for baseband signaling (using the entire bandwidth for a single signal), and "T" signifies twisted pair. Copper UTP cables are categorized by performance standards, dictating their maximum supported speeds and distances. For the CompTIA Network+ exam, you must be able to differentiate these categories: Cat 5e (Category 5 enhanced): Supports speeds up to 1 Gbps (1000 Mbps) at frequencies up to 100 MHz. It replaced the original Cat 5 standard and is the minimum baseline for modern Gigabit Ethernet. Cat 6: Supports speeds up to 1 Gbps at frequencies up to 250 MHz. It features tighter twists and often includes a plastic spline separating the pairs to …
3. Ethernet Switching and VLANs
How Switches Learn and Forward Imagine a newly hired employee connects their laptop to an office network jack. They open a browser, type in a web address, and the page loads almost instantly. To the user, this is magic. To a network engineer, it is the predictable result of Layer 2 operations. The switch receiving that initial connection has no idea who the laptop is, where the web server is, or how to reach it. Within milliseconds, however, it figures it out. As we established in our look at the OSI model, Layer 2 is responsible for node-to-node data link delivery. While Layer 3 handles logical routing across different networks, Layer 2 relies on physical hardware addresses to move data frames locally. The workhorse of this layer is the Ethernet switch. MAC Address Table Fundamentals A switch builds its intelligence around a MAC address table (sometimes called a CAM table, for Content Addressable Memory). This table maps physical MAC addresses to the specific physical switch ports where they were detected. When a switch is powered on, its MAC address table is completely empty. It populates this table through a straightforward two-step process: learning and forwarding. 1. Learning When a frame enters a switch port, the switch examines the frame's source MAC address. If that address is not already in the MAC address table, the switch adds it, associating the MAC address with the port the frame just arrived on. 2. Forwarding Next, the switch looks at the frame's destination MAC address. It checks its MAC address table to see if it knows which port that destination is connected to: - Known unicast: If the destination MAC is in the table, the switch forwards the frame out of that specific port only. - Unknown unicast: If the destination MAC is not in the table, the switch treats the frame like a broadcast. It floods the frame out of all active ports except the port it received the frame on. This is known as unknown unicast flooding. - Broadcast and multicast: Broadcast frames (destination MAC FF:FF:FF:FF:FF:FF) and multicast frames are flooded out all active ports (except the receiving port) by default. Once the destination device receives the frame and replies, the switch learns that device's MAC address from the reply's source field. From that point on, communication between the two devices is switched directly port-to-port rather than flooded. Frame Forwarding Methods How a switch actually processes and sends a frame depends on its forwarding method. Modern switches primarily use one of two methods: - Store-and-forward: The switch receives the entire frame, performs a Frame Check Sequence (FCS) to ensure the frame isn't corrupted, and then looks up the destination MAC address before …
4. IP Addressing and Subnetting
The Anatomy of an IPv4 Address Every device on a TCP/IP network requires an IP address to communicate. In earlier modules, we established how data is encapsulated and passed down the OSI model, eventually traversing physical media and Ethernet switches. At Layer 3, the Network layer, IP addressing takes over to route traffic between networks. An IPv4 address is a 32-bit logical address divided into four 8-bit octets, separated by periods. While computers read this in binary (e.g., 11000000.10101000.00000001.00000001), humans use dotted-decimal notation (e.g., 192.168.1.1). Every IPv4 address consists of two parts: 1. Network Portion: Identifies the specific network segment. 2. Host Portion: Identifies the specific device on that segment. The boundary between these two portions is determined by the subnet mask. A subnet mask looks like an IP address (e.g., 255.255.255.0) but its sole purpose is to tell the device where the network portion ends and the host portion begins. In binary, a subnet mask is a continuous string of 1s followed by a continuous string of 0s. The 1s correspond to the network portion; the 0s correspond to the host portion. IPv4 Address Classes and Ranges Historically, IPv4 addresses were divided into classes based on their first octet. While classful addressing is largely obsolete in modern networking, the CompTIA Network+ exam requires you to know these ranges, as they form the basis of default routing and private IP allocation. Class A: 1.0.0.0 to 126.255.255.255. Default mask: 255.0.0.0 (/8). Class B: 128.0.0.0 to 191.255.255.255. Default mask: 255.255.0.0 (/16). Class C: 192.0.0.0 to 223.255.255.255. Default mask: 255.255.255.0 (/24). Class D: 224.0.0.0 to 239.255.255.255. Reserved for multicast. Class E: 240.0.0.0 to 255.255.255.255. Reserved for experimental use. Note that 127.0.0.0 to 127.255.255.255 is skipped; this range is reserved for loopback testing (e.g., 127.0.0.1), allowing a device to test its own TCP/IP stack. Public, Private, and APIPA Addresses Not all IP addresses can route across the public internet. To combat IPv4 exhaustion, the IETF designated specific ranges as private IP addresses. These can be used freely on internal LANs but must be translated via NAT (Network Address Translation) at the edge router to access the internet. The private IPv4 ranges are: 10.0.0.0 to 10.255.255.255 (1 Class A network) 172.16.0.0 to 172.31.255.255 (16 Class B networks) 192.168.0.0 to 192.168.255.255 (256 Class C networks) Public IP addresses are everything else in the Class A, B, and C ranges. They are globally unique and routable on the internet, assigned by ISPs and regional internet registries. APIPA (Automatic Private IP Addressing) comes into play when a device is configured to obtain an IP automatically via DHCP, but the DHCP server is unreachable or down. Rather than failing to communicate entirely, the device assigns itself a random IP …
5. Routing and Network Infrastructure Services
Imagine a single corporate network connecting offices in New York, London, and Tokyo. When a user in New York sends a file to a server in London, how does the data know to cross the Atlantic rather than wandering aimlessly across the local switches? The answer lies at Layer 3 of the OSI model—the network layer. Having mastered how switches forward frames within a local subnet using MAC addresses (Chapter 3) and how IP addressing logically organizes those subnets (Chapter 4), we now turn to the mechanisms that move traffic between those subnets. This chapter breaks down how routers make forwarding decisions, the difference between manually configuring those paths and letting protocols do it dynamically, and the essential infrastructure services—DHCP and DNS—that make modern networks usable. Routing Fundamentals: Moving Traffic Between Subnets While switches rely on MAC address tables to forward traffic within a VLAN, routers rely on routing tables to forward IP packets between different IP subnets. A routing table is essentially a set of instructions, mapping destination networks to the best next hop. Every entry in a routing table contains at least three critical pieces of information: Destination Network: The remote subnet the router is trying to reach (e.g., 192.168.50.0/24). Next-Hop IP or Exit Interface: Where the router should send the packet next. This could be the IP address of an adjacent router, or the local interface the packet should exit. Metric: A value used to determine the "cost" of a route. If a router learns two paths to the same destination, it prefers the one with the lower metric. When a router receives an IP packet, it strips off the Layer 2 frame, examines the destination IP address, and checks its routing table. If it finds a matching entry, it encapsulates the packet in a new frame and sends it out the appropriate interface. If no match is found, the packet is dropped and an ICMP "Destination Unreachable" message is sent back to the sender. The Default Route What happens when a router receives a packet destined for a network it doesn't explicitly know—like a user trying to reach a public website? The router uses a default route (often called the "gateway of last resort"). Represented as 0.0.0.0/0 in IPv4, this route essentially tells the router: "If you don't have a specific path for this packet, send it here." This is how internal network traffic finds its way to the internet via an ISP edge router. Static Routing vs. Dynamic Routing There are two ways a router's routing table can be populated: manually by a network administrator, or automatically by dynamic routing protocols. Static Routing In static routing, an administrator manually types the destination network, next-hop IP, …
6. Wireless and Cloud Networking
Wireless LAN Technologies and Standards Modern enterprise networks extend far beyond the physical cabling and Ethernet switches discussed in earlier chapters. At the center of this expansion is the IEEE 802.11 standard, governing wireless local area network (WLAN) communications. While you already understand how devices communicate over a LAN, WLANs introduce the concept of half-duplex communication over a shared medium—the air. Because only one device can transmit on a given channel at a time, wireless relies on Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance (CSMA/CA), utilizing Request to Send (RTS) and Clear to Send (CTS) frames to reserve the airspace and minimize collisions. For the CompTIA Network+ exam, you must be familiar with the evolution of 802.11 standards, specifically regarding frequency bands, maximum data rates, and channel bandwidths. Wi-Fi Standards Evolution 802.11ac (Wi-Fi 5): Operates strictly on the 5 GHz band. It introduced wider channels (up to 160 MHz) and Multiple User MIMO (MU-MIMO), allowing routers to communicate with multiple devices simultaneously. Maximum theoretical throughput is roughly 3.5 Gbps. 802.11ax (Wi-Fi 6 / Wi-Fi 6E): Designed for high-density environments. It operates on both 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz bands, and Wi-Fi 6E extends this into the 6 GHz band. 802.11ax introduces Orthogonal Frequency-Division Multiple Access (OFDMA), which slices channels into smaller resource units to serve multiple clients at the exact same time, vastly reducing latency. Maximum theoretical throughput reaches approximately 9.6 Gbps. Wireless Architecture Components Deploying a WLAN requires specific hardware. Access Points (APs): Provide the wireless bridge to the wired LAN. Controllers: In enterprise environments, a Wireless LAN Controller (WLC) centralizes management and configuration for dozens or hundreds of APs. Instead of configuring each AP individually, the controller pushes policies down to them. LWAPP and CAPWAP: Lightweight Access Point Protocol (LWAPP) and Control and Provisioning of Wireless Access Points (CAPWAP) are the protocols used for communication between lightweight APs and the WLC. CAPWAP is the modern standard, operating over UDP. Implementing Wireless Security Protocols Because wireless signals bleed through physical walls and into parking lots, securing the airspace is paramount. Early attempts like WEP (Wired Equivalent Privacy) are trivially crackable and obsolete. WPA used TKIP as a stopgap, but modern security requires WPA2 or WPA3. WPA3: The Modern Standard WPA3 addresses critical vulnerabilities found in WPA2, particularly around offline dictionary attacks. If an attacker captures the 4-way handshake of a WPA2 network, they can run an offline brute-force attack indefinitely. WPA3 fixes this. Simultaneous Authentication of Equals (SAE): WPA3-Personal replaces the WPA2-PSK (Pre-Shared Key) 4-way handshake with SAE. SAE requires interaction with the AP for every password guess, making offline dictionary attacks impossible. It also provides forward secrecy, meaning if a password is compromised in the future, previously captured …
7. Network Operations and Management
The Blueprint: Network Documentation A mid-sized enterprise experiences a sudden network outage. The IT director calls you, the newly hired network administrator, and asks what is going on. You walk into the server room to find a rat's nest of patch cables. There is no documentation indicating where specific switch ports route, which VLANs (covered in Chapter 3) they belong to, or how the legacy routing paths are configured. What should be a ten-minute fix becomes a multi-hour archaeological dig. This scenario illustrates why network documentation is not just bureaucratic red tape; it is the foundational layer of network operations. For the CompTIA Network+ exam, you must understand how to create, interpret, and maintain several specific types of documentation. Network Diagrams A network diagram provides a visual representation of the network’s logical or physical architecture. You must be able to interpret and build these using standard symbols. While the OSI model (Chapter 1) dictates how data flows conceptually, network diagrams dictate how the infrastructure is actually wired and organized. You will typically encounter two types: - Logical Diagrams: These show the topology as it functions logically, ignoring physical placement. They depict IP subnets (Chapter 4), VLAN boundaries, routing protocols, and traffic flow. - Physical Diagrams: These map the actual physical locations of devices, including server racks, patch panels, and the exact pathways of fiber and copper cabling (Chapter 2). The exam expects you to recognize standard Cisco-inspired topology symbols. You should know the visual representations for: - Routers: A cylinder with arrows pointing inward and outward. - Switches: A rectangular prism with bidirectional arrows on the top and bottom. - Firewalls: A brick wall icon or a rectangular box with a brick pattern. - Servers: A tower or rack-mounted server icon. - Cloud: The standard cloud symbol, representing the Internet or a provider network (Chapter 6). Wiring Schematics While a physical network diagram shows where a switch is located, a wiring schematic details exactly how the cables are punched down and patched. In a data center, cables don't just plug directly from a switch to a server. They run from the server to a patch panel, through a trunk, to another patch panel, and finally into a switch. Wiring schematics track these connections using intermediate distribution frames (IDF) and main distribution frames (MDF). When troubleshooting a dead port, a wiring schematic tells you exactly which patch panel port and which punch-down block corresponds to that specific switch port, saving you from tracing a cable manually through a ceiling. Baseline Documentation You cannot know if your network is performing poorly if you don’t know what "normal" looks like. Baseline documentation is a snapshot of network performance under typical operating conditions. Creating …
8. Network Security Principles and Design
Securing the Network Perimeter A mid-sized e-commerce company suffers a catastrophic data breach. The root cause isn't an elite zero-day exploit, but a misconfigured firewall rule left over from a temporary testing environment that inadvertently exposed a database server to the public internet. Network security is rarely defeated by cryptographic wizardry; it is most often compromised by misconfigurations, overlooked defaults, and a lack of defense-in-depth. Building on the routing and switching foundations covered in earlier chapters, securing a network requires controlling exactly who and what can cross its boundaries. This starts at the perimeter with firewalls and Network Address Translation (NAT), and extends inward to the access layer. Firewalls and Access Control Lists (ACLs) A firewall is a hardware or software device that inspects traffic and permits or denies it based on a defined set of rules. Firewalls are generally categorized by their OSI layer of operation: - Packet-filtering firewalls (Layer 3/4): Operate at the Network and Transport layers. They make decisions based solely on source/destination IP, source/destination port, and protocol (TCP, UDP). They are fast but lack state awareness. - Stateful firewalls (Layer 4): Track the state of active connections in a state table. If an internal host initiates an outbound TCP connection, the firewall allows the return traffic inbound, but blocks unsolicited inbound traffic on that port. - Next-Generation Firewalls (NGFW) (Layer 3-7): Combine traditional stateful inspection with deep packet inspection (DPI), Intrusion Prevention Systems (IPS), and application-level awareness. An NGFW can identify and block specific applications (like BitTorrent or Facebook) regardless of the port they are using. - Web Application Firewalls (WAF) (Layer 7): Specifically designed to protect web applications (HTTP/HTTPS) from attacks like SQL injection and Cross-Site Scripting (XSS). Access Control Lists (ACLs) are rule sets used by routers and switches to filter traffic. While a firewall is a dedicated security appliance, ACLs are typically applied directly to router interfaces to provide basic traffic filtering. An ACL consists of a series of "permit" or "deny" statements processed sequentially from top to bottom. When a packet matches a rule, the action is taken, and processing stops. If no rules match, the implicit "deny all" at the end of the ACL drops the packet. Scenario: ACL Implementation A network administrator needs to allow internal users (10.0.0.0/24) to access a specific external web server (203.0.113.50) via HTTPS, while blocking all other outbound traffic from that subnet. The ACL would look logically like this: 1. Permit TCP source 10.0.0.0/24 destination 203.0.113.50 port 443 2. Deny IP source 10.0.0.0/24 destination any 3. Deny IP any any (Implicit) Network Address Translation (NAT) Originally designed to mitigate IPv4 address exhaustion, NAT has become a fundamental security feature. By translating private, internal IP addresses …
9. Troubleshooting Methodology and Tools
A helpdesk ticket arrives: "The internet is down for the accounting department." An unstructured approach might involve rebooting routers, swapping cables, and changing IP configurations blindly until the connection magically returns. This "shotgun" approach wastes time, disrupts users, and leaves you with no understanding of the root cause. To avoid this, CompTIA expects you to follow a structured, six-step troubleshooting methodology. For the Network+ exam, you must know these steps in exact order. The Six Steps 1. Identify the problem. Gather information by questioning users and identifying symptoms. Determine if anything has changed recently (the "what changed?" factor). Establish the scope of the issue: is it a single workstation, a specific VLAN, or the entire WAN? You must also duplicate the problem if possible. 2. Establish a theory of probable cause. Based on the symptoms and your knowledge of the network topology, formulate a theory. Start with the obvious or physical layer (Layer 1) before moving up the OSI model. 3. Test the theory to determine the cause. Prove or disprove your theory. If your theory is correct, move to the next step. If it is incorrect, establish a new theory and test it. If at any point the testing creates a risk to the production network, escalate the issue immediately. 4. Establish a plan of action to resolve the problem and identify potential effects. Once you know the root cause, design a fix. Crucially, consider the blast radius of your solution. Will rebooting a core switch take down a critical database? If so, you must schedule the action for a maintenance window. 5. Implement the solution or escalate as necessary. Apply the fix. If you lack the permissions, expertise, or authority to implement it safely, escalate to the appropriate team or vendor. 6. Verify full system functionality and, if applicable, implement preventive measures. Confirm the original issue is resolved and that you haven't created new problems. If a bad patch cable caused a broadcast storm, implement preventive measures like enabling loop protection (as covered in Ethernet Switching and VLANs). 7. Document findings, actions, and outcomes. (Note: CompTIA treats documentation as the final step, though in practice you should document throughout the process). Update your knowledge base or ticketing system with the symptoms, root cause, and resolution. Command-Line Interface (CLI) Utilities Intermediate network administrators rely heavily on the command line to quickly query network states and isolate failures. The exam tests your ability to read command outputs and determine what they reveal about the network. ICMP and Path Discovery The ping utility uses ICMP Echo Request and Echo Reply messages to verify Layer 3 connectivity. While you likely know how to ping a host, the exam focuses on interpreting the …
10. Resolving Common Network Issues
A mid-sized enterprise is experiencing a bizarre network outage. Users in the Accounting department cannot reach the internet, but they can ping the gateway. Meanwhile, the Marketing team across the hall has perfect connectivity. The helpdesk confirms all cables are plugged in, and the switches show link lights. After an hour of swapping cables and rebooting machines, a senior engineer notices a typo in the Accounting VLAN configuration. As a network professional, you will rarely encounter textbook-perfect networks. Instead, you inherit environments shaped by rushed deployments, undocumented changes, and aging infrastructure. Having mastered the Troubleshooting Methodology and Tools in the previous module, the focus now shifts to applying those methodologies to the most common failure points: the physical layer, logical configurations, and the invisible airwaves of wireless networking. Resolving Physical Layer Issues The OSI model's Layer 1 is the foundation of all network communication. When physical media fails, upper-layer protocols behave unpredictably. Rather than completely failing, a damaged cable might pass a simple ping test but drop packets under heavy load, leading to frustrating, intermittent issues. Attenuation and Signal Degradation Attenuation is the loss of signal strength as it travels over a medium. In copper cabling, electrical resistance degrades the signal. In fiber optics, the light signal disperses and loses intensity over long distances. When troubleshooting attenuation: - Check cable lengths: Ensure copper runs do not exceed the 100-meter maximum defined by Ethernet standards. - Inspect for improper extensions: Look for daisy-chained patch cables or excessive patch panels, which add cumulative resistance. - Verify optical budgets: For fiber, ensure the distance and splice count do not exceed the optical budget of the transceivers (SFP/SFP+). If attenuation is suspected, replacing the cable or inserting a repeater/network switch at the midpoint to regenerate the signal is the standard resolution. Crosstalk and Electromagnetic Interference (EMI) Crosstalk occurs when an electrical signal in one wire induces an unwanted signal in an adjacent wire. You will primarily encounter Near-End Crosstalk (NEXT), where interference is measured at the transmitting end, and Far-End Crosstalk (FEXT), measured at the receiving end. Crosstalk is typically caused by poorly twisted wire pairs at the connector ends. If a technician untwists too much of the cable jacket when terminating an RJ45 connector, the untwisted segment acts as an antenna, picking up interference. EMI is external interference from machinery, fluorescent lighting, or high-voltage electrical cables. To resolve crosstalk and EMI: 1. Re-terminate cables ensuring twists are maintained as close to the connector as possible. 2. Route data cables away from power lines (ideally crossing them at 90-degree angles if they must intersect). 3. Upgrade from UTP (Unshielded Twisted Pair) to STP (Shielded Twisted Pair) or ScTP (Screened Twisted Pair) in high-interference environments …
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